But while normal stars fuse hydrogen through relatively long-winded, inefficient chain reactions that rely on random collisions of atomic nuclei, the enormous pressures in a hypergiant's core allow it to use a much faster and more efficient set of reactions called the carbon-nitrogen-oxygen CNO cycle. The rate of reactions in the hypergiant stars core generates an enormous outward radiation pressure that swells the star's outer layers. During the main-sequence phase, the inward pull of gravity stabilises the star at few tens of solar diameters enormous but still compact enough for its surface to remain searing hot and blue-white in colour.
Once the core's supply of hydrogen is exhausted, it starts to burn fuel from surrounding shells in an attempt to keep shining. Perhaps surprisingly, this increases the hypergiant's luminosity still further, and the additional pressure of escaping radiation causes the star's outer surface to swell and cool, transforming it into a yellow, orange or red hypergiant depending on exactly where the balance is reached. However, many hypergiants never quite reach this stage, staying hot and relatively compact throughout their short lifetime.
They do this by blowing away their outer layers on a stellar wind similar to, but much more powerful than, our Sun's own solar wind. Wolf-Rayet stars, often abbreviated as WR stars, are a rare subset of supermassive stars.
They feature strong, broad emission lines of helium and nitrogen, carbon, and oxygen. Due to their strong emission lines, they can be identified in nearby galaxies. Wolf-Rayet stars can shed perhaps a solar mass of material every , years, exposing their even hotter interior layers. Towards the end of its life, such a star may become unstable, evolving into a Luminous Blue Variable or LBV star which is prone to sudden outbursts. LBVs are often surrounded by clouds of gas ejected from previous eruptions.
Perhaps the most famous example is Eta Carinae, a double-star system containing a blue LBV of around solar masses, orbited by a blue supergiant of about 30 solar masses. In the earlys, a major outburst saw Eta Carinae brighten from its usual position on the borders of naked-eye visibility, to become the second-brightest star in the sky.
Their deaths can be pretty awesome catastrophes. Once these high-mass stars have exhausted their hydrogen, they expand to become much-larger supergiant stars. The Sun actually will do the same thing in the future, but on a much smaller scale. Things change inside these stars, too. The expansion is caused as the star begins to fuse helium into carbon and oxygen.
That heats the interior of the star up, which eventually causes the exterior to swell. This process helps them avoid collapsing in on themselves, even as they heat up. At the supergiant stage, a star oscillates between several states. It will be a red supergiant for a while, and then when it starts to fuse other elements in its core, it can become a blue supergiant. IN between such a star can also appear as a yellow supergiant as it transitions.
The different colors are due to the fact that the star is swelling in size to hundreds of times the radius of our Sun in the red supergiant phase, to less than 25 solar radii in the blue supergiant phase. In these supergiant phases, such stars lose mass quite rapidly and therefore are quite bright.
Some supergiants are brighter than expected, and astronomers studied them in more depth. It turns out the hypergiants are some of the most massive stars ever measured and their aging process is much more exaggerated. That's the basic idea behind how a hypergiant grows old.
The most intense process is suffered by stars that are more than a hundred times the mass of our Sun. The largest is more than times its mass, and incredibly bright. Their brightness and other characteristics led astronomers to give these bloated stars a new classification: hypergiant.
They are essentially supergiants either red, yellow or blue that have very high mass, and also high mass-loss rates. Because of their high mass and luminosity, hypergiants only live a few million years.
That's a pretty short lifespan for a star. By comparison, the Sun will live about 10 billion years. Their short lifespans mean that they go from baby stars to hydrogen-fusion very quickly, they exhaust their hydrogen quite fast, and move into the supergiant phase long before their smaller, less-massive, and ironically, longer-lived stellar siblings like the Sun.
Eventually, the core of the hypergiant will fuse heavier and heavier elements until the core is mostly iron. Meta-Analysis Group Hypergiant validated off-nets by continent allows you to reproduce the results used in Figure 5. Meta-Analysis Estimate Hypergiant country coverage allows you to reproduce the Internet user population coverage percentage per country for off-net footprints results used in Figures 6, 7 and 8.
For the analysis part, we suggest to populate the datasets folder of this repository, following these instructions. The next steps suffice to infer the off-nets of the considered Hypergiants in this study. We will include more analysis commands that are available in the software at a later stage.
As a first step, the script takes as an input the certificate dataset and extracts the End-Entity EE certificate of each IP. Each line contains a JSON object formatted as:. Here is an example of a configuration file.
Any value can be used as a "hypergiant-keyword". For the "hypergiant-ases-key" we support the following values:. The folder contains a file per HG keyword.
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