We also focused on the different POC devices available for early herpes diagnosis, which is necessary for proper clinical prognoses and to prevent recurrence and spread of the infection. Advanced POC devices hold the key to the future of HSV diagnosis, as they would enable testing on the spot and on demand, even at home. This approach will revolutionize HSV testing and will be especially important in resource-limited settings.
Conceptualization, A. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. National Center for Biotechnology Information , U. Journal List Infect Dis Rep v. Infect Dis Rep. Published online Jun 2. Nicola Petrosillo, Academic Editor. Author information Article notes Copyright and License information Disclaimer.
Received May 13; Accepted May This article has been cited by other articles in PMC. Abstract Herpes is a widespread viral infection caused by the herpes simplex virus HSV that has no permanent cure to date. Keywords: herpes simplex virus, detection, diagnostics, point-of-care devices, microfluidics, imaging and microscopy.
Introduction Herpes simplex viruses 1 and 2 HSV-1 and HSV-2 are DNA-based viruses from the Herpesviridae family, responsible for causing herpes genital or oral and fulminate encephalitis in humans [ 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 ]. Detection of HSV in Lesions Traditional diagnosis of HSV from lesions involves the direct detection of tissues or cells infected by the virus, viral proteins, whole virus, or genetic materials.
Microscopy and Imaging Brightfield Microscopy: Historically, the most widely used HSV diagnostic tests were based on Brightfield microscopy [ 25 , 26 ]. Open in a separate window. Figure 1. Figure 2. Detecting Viral Glycoproteins Agglutination Assay: Agglutination assays are simple assays that involve the clustering of microparticles due to immunogenic reactions in the presence of the target antigen or antibody. Detecting Viral Genetic Material Polymerase Chain Reaction: The most common and standard molecular diagnosis technique is polymerase chain reaction PCR , which allows the rapid amplification of viral genomes and can be used in clinical laboratories for the detection of HSV, as shown in Figure 3 [ 27 , 89 , 90 , 91 , 92 , 93 , 94 , 95 , 96 , 97 ].
Figure 3. Passive Agglutination or Hemagglutination Assay In this assay, red blood cells are adsorbed with a soluble antigen on their surface and agglutinate in the presence of a patient serum sample with antibodies specific to the antigen [ , ].
Western Blot Assay In this process, the whole HSV-1 and HSV-2 antigens from infected cell lines are separated by electrophoresis, then absorbed onto the nitrocellulose membrane and exposed to the patient serum [ 30 , , , , , ]. Figure 4. Fluorescence Immunoassay A time-resolved fluorescence immunoassay based on the indirect assay method has been used for the quantitative determination of HSV IgG in human serum samples [ ]. Multiplexed Flow Immunoassay Automated multiplexed flow immunoassays MFIs allow simultaneous detection of multiple analytes in a single reaction tube [ 26 , ].
Luciferase Immunoprecipitation Assay An alternative assay technique to measure antibody titers in patients is the luciferase immunoprecipitation system LIPS [ , , ]. Microfluidic-Based Point-of-Care Devices A simple POC device comprises of i a biological recognition element enzyme, protein, antibody, and aptamer that selectively interacts with the antigen and ii a transducer that monitors the interaction and provides the outcome both qualitatively and quantitatively.
Figure 5. Conclusions In this review, we have described different conventional laboratory-based detection techniques, including the agglutination assay, the viral culture method, and serological and molecular diagnosis assays used for detecting HSV infection with respect to their sensitivity and specificity in differentiating HSV 1, HSV 2, and VZV, which have different treatments compared to herpes infection.
Author Contributions Conceptualization, A. Funding This research was funded by University of Toledo startup funds. Institutional Review Board Statement Not applicable. Informed Consent Statement Not applicable. Data Availability Statement Not applicable. Conflicts of Interest The authors declare no conflict of interest.
References 1. Johnston C. Whitley R. Clinical management of herpes simplex virus infections: Past, present, and future. F Faculty Rev Crimi S. Characteristics of herpes simplex virus infection and pathogenesis suggest a strategy for vaccine development.
Arvin A. Human Herpesviruses: Biology, Therapy, and Immunoprophylaxis. Weiss H. Epidemiology of herpes simplex virus type 2 infection in the developing world. Gaydos C. Point of care diagnostics for sexually transmitted infections: Perspectives and advances. Expert Rev. James C. Herpes simplex virus: Global infection prevalence and incidence estimates, World Health Organ.
Looker K. Global and regional estimates of the contribution of herpes simplex virus type 2 infection to HIV incidence: A population attributable fraction analysis using published epidemiological data.
Lancet Infect. Smith G. Herpesvirus transport to the nervous system and back again. Herpesviruses use bidirectional fast-axonal transport to spread in sensory neurons. Chew T. Innate and adaptive immune responses to herpes simplex virus. Ike A. Nash A. The immune response to herpes simplex virus. Suazo P. Herpes simplex virus 2 infection: Molecular association with HIV and novel microbicides to prevent disease.
Aoki F. Management of genital herpes in HIV-infected patients. Cherpes T. Neonatal herpes simplex virus infection. Kimberlin D. Neonatal herpes simplex infection. Ayoub H. Razonable R. Antiviral drugs for viruses other than human immunodeficiency virus. Mayo Clin. Munday P. Role of type specific herpes simplex virus serology in the diagnosis and management of genital herpes.
Kozel T. Philip S. Laderman E. Rapid, sensitive, and specific lateral-flow immunochromatographic point-of-care device for detection of herpes simplex virus type 2-specific immunoglobulin G antibodies in serum and whole blood.
Vaccine Immunol. Singh A. The laboratory diagnosis of herpes simplex virus infections. Anderson N. Light microscopy, culture, molecular, and serologic methods for detection of herpes simplex virus.
Kessler H. Kaneko H. Sensitive and rapid detection of herpes simplex virus and varicella-zoster virus DNA by loop-mediated isothermal amplification. Katz D. Ashley R. Comparison of Western blot immunoblot and glycoprotein G-specific immunodot enzyme assay for detecting antibodies to herpes simplex virus types 1 and 2 in human sera.
Pouletty P. Detection of herpes simplex virus in direct specimens by immunofluorescence assay using a monoclonal antibody. Olivo P. Detection of herpes simplex virus by measurement of luciferase activity in an infected-cell lysate.
LeGoff J. Diagnosis of genital herpes simplex virus infection in the clinical laboratory. Morgan C. Electron microscopy of herpes simplex virus. Folkers E. Improved detection of HSV by electron microscopy in clinical specimens using ultracentrifugation and colloidal gold immunoelectron microscopy: Comparison with viral culture and cytodiagnosis. Ray A. Computational sensing of herpes simplex virus using a cost-effective on-chip microscope. Koenig M. Comparison of Light-Cycler PCR, enzyme immunoassay, and tissue culture for detection of herpes simplex virus.
Slinger R. Al-Shobaili H. Evaluation of the HerpeSelect Express rapid test in the detection of herpes simplex virus type 2 antibodies in patients with genital ulcer disease. Kim H.
A rapid and simple isothermal nucleic acid amplification test for detection of herpes simplex virus types 1 and 2. Morrow R. BMC Infect. Daaboul G. Enhanced light microscopy visualization of virus particles from Zika virus to filamentous ebolaviruses. Solomon A. The Tzanck smear in the diagnosis of cutaneous herpes simplex.
Kelly B. Reintroducing the Tzanck Smear. Eksomtramage T. Recurrent extragenital herpes simplex type 2 occurring in a distal location of the same dermatome. Nahass G. Detection of herpes simplex and varicella-zoster infection from cutaneous lesions in different clinical stages with the polymerase chain reaction.
Comparison of Tzanck smear, viral culture, and DNA diagnostic methods in detection of herpes simplex and varicella-zoster infection. Yamamoto T. Detection of multinucleated giant cells in differentiated keratinocytes with herpes simplex virus and varicella zoster virus infections by modified Tzanck smear method. Zhao L. Impact of cell culture sensitivity and virus concentration on rapid detection of herpes simplex virus by cytopathic effects and immunoperoxidase staining.
Jerome K. From there, the two of you have blood tests and ask to be screened for STIs, including both types of herpes: herpes simplex virus type 1 HSV-1 , which most commonly causes oral herpes, and herpes simplex virus type 2 HSV-2 , which most commonly leads to genital herpes. Neither of you has ever experienced symptoms, so when the test comes back and reveals that you're herpes-positive, you're stunned. You're instantly hit with a minefield of emotions, including shame — no surprise, given the decades of stigma surrounding herpes and other STIs.
But wait: Did you know that most people are positive for HSV-1 , and that most are asymptomatic, meaning they have no symptoms? The problem is that blood tests for herpes when no lesions or symptoms are present are often bullshit. I realize that's a pretty strong word, but after speaking with doctors who have administered these tests, it's become more and more apparent to me how misunderstood — and in some cases, just plain wrong — the results they give are.
Part of the reason they're flawed has to do with the fact that most people have been exposed to HSV-1 or oral herpes. He adds that blood tests can be misleading because they usually don't detect the herpes virus itself and instead look at the level of antibodies against the virus, which is merely a sign of immune response to it.
In other words, if you've been exposed to oral herpes which most people have , results of the IgM test could lead you to believe you're positive for genital herpes, when in fact you simply have antibodies against HSV IgG tests, on the other hand, are more accurate, but aren't without their own issues. This means that even with accurate results, someone could get a false- negative if they have the test administered too soon after contracting the virus physicians recommend waiting 12 to 16 weeks after possible exposure.
Aside from the two aforementioned blood tests, there are other FDA-approved gG-based blood tests that can offer accurate results, which the ASHA has broken down in this handy chart. However, the association also points out that these tests can't determine whether the site of infection is oral or genital, which poses a problem for those who want to know their HSV or HSVspecific status.
All of this tells us that sure, there are some currently available blood tests for herpes that can tell you your status — or give you some idea of it — but they're still far from perfect. And when we're dealing with a illness that's highly and widely stigmatized the way herpes has become, most people are looking for airtight answers. Both genital and oral herpes outbreaks have similar symptoms. The primary symptom of a herpes outbreak is sores that resemble blisters, called herpes lesions, on the mouth or genitals.
Most of the symptoms that occur before an outbreak indicate that the virus is replicating. Symptoms are usually the worst during the first herpes outbreak.
According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention CDC , subsequent herpes outbreaks are usually not as severe, and many people become familiar with the signs and symptoms of an approaching outbreak. If you have the herpes virus and your body has produced antibodies, it can be detected on a blood test, even if you have no symptoms. However, you can still spread the herpes virus to your sexual partners at any time, even if no sores are present.
If you have herpes, you can still take care of your sexual health through open communication and safer sex. Herpes simplex virus is common in the United States. Yes, you can contract oral herpes HSV-1 , aka cold sores, from kissing, but developing genital herpes HSV-2 this way is less likely.
As many as 1 in 2 American adults have oral herpes, while an estimated 1 in 8 Americans ages 14 to 49 have genital herpes. Most infections are…. There are two types of herpes: oral and genital. Find out what each type of herpes feels like. While a PCR diagnostic assay would substantially reduce the risk to diagnostic laboratory workers, the samples tested could contain viable B virus and need to be handled with appropriate caution. Skip directly to site content Skip directly to page options Skip directly to A-Z link.
B Virus herpes B, monkey B virus, herpesvirus simiae, and herpesvirus B. Section Navigation. Facebook Twitter LinkedIn Syndicate. Laboratory Testing and Diagnosis. Minus Related Pages. Specimen Collection Obtain specimens for virus culture and serologic testing from the exposed person and, when feasible, from the associated monkey.
Virus Detection and Diagnosis Immediately following exposure, and prior to the onset of symptoms, it is important to collect sera approximately 3 weeks apart to determine whether seroconversion to B virus infection has occurred.
0コメント